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Scientific Writing Science
reports are written to communicate research in an effective and scientific
manner. Experiments in biology, chemistry, or any other discipline,
cannot increase the sum of knowledge unless they are shared and understood by
others. Scientists report the results of their research activities in scientific
journals using two major types of papers: the review paper and the research
paper. The review paper provides a summary and interpretation of all of the research on a specific topic The research paper presents the results of an original experiment. It is an argument founded on supporting evidence from the data obtained in the laboratory work and includes six sections: Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion and Literature Cited (see Section B below). This
special section of the Manual for
Researched Writing includes sections: A.
Literature Search B.
Parts of the Science Research Paper C.
Reading Scientific Papers D.
Writing Style in Science E.
Academic Integrity F.
Writing for Physics A. Literature Search Before writing a research paper, a scientist must identify earlier work on the topic and use that information as background for new work. There are various types of resources to consider: Primary Sources - Reports of original research that are intended for use by the scientific community. These reports are found in scholarly, peer-reviewed journals such as Science, Nature, The Journal of Bacteriology, Bioscience, The Journal of American Medical Association (JAMA), and many, many more. Secondary
Sources - Resources that are intended for
use by nonscientific readers. These are generally reports found in popular
periodicals such as Discover, Smithsonian, Nutrition Action, Tufts Medical Newsletter, The
Science Times (NYT), and others.
Tertiary Sources - Summaries or overviews of particular subjects. They may also be news reports or releases about major works that have been reported to the scientific community in primary works. These general works may be found in newsmagazines like Time and Newsweek, in popular magazines such as Reader’s Digest and Good Housekeeping, and in newspapers like The Connecticut Post and The Fairfield Citizen. Abstract - A short summary of a paper’s objectives, methods, results and conclusions. These may be found in databases such as Biological Abstracts, Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, Medline, and many others. For
detailed strategies to use when reading scientific literature, see Section
C below. B. Parts of the Science Research Paper A scientific research paper usually includes the following parts:
Each section (except the Title Page) is clearly labeled. 1. Title Page and Title The title page is the first page of the paper and
includes the title of the paper and the author’s name.
The title should be as short as possible and as long as necessary to
communicate to the reader the question being answered in the paper. 2. Abstract The abstract is placed at the beginning of the second page of the paper, after the title page. The abstract summarizes the question being investigated in the paper, the methods used in the experiment, the results, and the conclusions drawn. The reader should be able to determine the major topics in the paper without reading the entire paper. Basically, an abstract is a one-paragraph summary of the entire paper. The abstract is composed after the rest of the paper is completed. 3. Introduction The introduction has two functions: a - Provide context and background for the
investigation. The introduction begins by reviewing background information that will enable the reader to understand the objective of the study and the significance of the problem, relating the problem to the larger issues in the field. The scientist includes only information that directly prepares the reader to understand the question being investigated. Most ideas in the introduction will come from outside sources, such as scientific journals or books dealing with the topic under investigation. All sources of information are referenced and included in the Literature Cited section of the paper. In-text citations include the author’s last name and year of publication, not separated by a comma (Name-Year System), or the sequential reference number (Number System) in parentheses at the end of the sentence or paragraph relating to the idea. For example: …text
(Tracey 2002). …text (2). …text3
text.
b - To state the question asked and the
hypothesis tested in the study. The introduction briefly describes the experiment performed, including only the question and hypothesis that were investigated. A description of all variables is included here. Note – A scientist writes in the past tense when referring to his/her own experiment. The present tense is used when referring to another investigator’s published work as background information. 4. Materials
and Methods This section describes the experiment in such a way
that it may be repeated exactly. The information in this section should not be a
list of steps. The procedure is written concisely, but in paragraph form using
the past tense. The way the
independent variable was varied, the numbers of replications, the control
treatments, and the method of measuring the dependent variable(s) are all
included. 5. Results The results section consists of at least three components:
Figures and tables are numbered consecutively throughout the paper. When referring to figures and tables within a paragraph, scientists use the word Figure or Table, followed by its number. If possible, each figure or table is placed at the end of the paragraph in which it is cited. For example: …text (Table 1). This section
does not include what was expected to happen, or the meaning of the results. 6. Discussion This is where the results of the experiment are analyzed and interpreted. The conclusion is clearly states in this section. The word “prove” is not used in the conclusions, since the results will support, verify, or confirm the hypothesis, or they will negate, refute, or contradict the hypothesis. The word “prove” is not appropriate in scientific writing. When writing a rough draft, the following steps may be helpful:
Having completed this list, integrate all of this information into several simple, clear, concise paragraphs. For more information on Writing Style in Science, see Section D below. 7. Literature Cited This section lists only those references cited in the text of the paper. There are two possible formats for science, the Name-Year and Number Systems. Always check with the instructor for his/her preference. C. Reading Scientific Papers The following represent a few writing-based strategies to help you become more independent in your reading of primary source science literature. Since the intent of this type of literature is for scientists to report their findings to other scientists working in related fields, the writing is extremely technical and geared toward those who are already familiar with the language and processes of that particular research field. Accordingly, high school students may have a difficult time understanding a good deal of the writing, especially sections where the methodology and data are discussed. This would include the presentation of the data in the form of figures and graphs. However, the strategies presented here focus primarily on those sections of the paper which students should be able to master, enabling them to comprehend the major point of the research discussed in the paper. Tips 1.
Do some background research to become familiar with the general topic. 2.
Start with the Abstract, which will summarize the article.
3.
If the Abstract indicates that the article will be relevant, read the
Introduction to identify the objectives of the authors. 4.
Scan the Materials and Methods section for a sense of the basic
methodology. 5.
Examine the significant findings in the Results section 6.
Look at how the author ties things together in the Discussion section, and
determine how the research supports your own work. 7.
Do not expect that one reading of the paper will be enough. As you read, try to relate each research study to your own work. Make use of only those articles that contain relevant information. Strategies
Determine where the paper is heading. 1. Read a part or all of the article and then write your first thoughts or questions you would like answered. Describe the purpose of the specific research in light of the larger problem it was attempting to investigate.
Write while you read. 2. Reword the Abstract in more common language. 3. As you read the Introduction, write one sentence that describes the main point of each paragraph. 4. As you read the Discussion, write one sentence that describes the main point in each paragraph.
Work with the figures containing
data. 5. The questions below require you to interpret figures within the article in several ways. Pay attention to the structure and design of each figure. Your initial observations should help you focus on particulars. a. What is the question or hypothesis the figure addresses? b. What method is used to address the hypothesis? c. What does the author conclude? d. Do you have any reservations about the author’s conclusions? e. How does this figure relate to the overall goals of the paper? 6. Write a caption for the figure(s) in your own words. 7. Write a one-sentence description of the significance of each figure. D. Writing Style in Science. Scientific writing often uses a style different from other types of writing. As you read scientific texts pay careful attention to the style used by the author. When you are asked to write in science, use the format and style used by research scientists. Scientists tend to use the passive voice and past tense when describing their investigations, and to avoid jargon and wordiness. 1. Passive
Voice Always use the passive voice, which stresses the subject being observed or tested, rather than the active voice, which stresses the researcher. Active: I recorded the temperature of the solution and then added 3ml of HCl. Passive: After the temperature of the solution was recorded, 3ml of HCl were added. (Note: Some scientific journals require the use of
the active voice to save space, since sentences in the active voice tend to be
shorter.) 2. Verb Tense Use the past tense when reporting the results of your own work (which includes most of the Abstract, Materials and Methods, and Results sections) and the present tense for established research (which includes most of the Introduction and Discussion). Some exceptions should be noted: · Use the past tense when you refer to an author directly: For example: Bednarik (1959) found that this Drepanidae was extremely sensitive to light. · Use the present tense when you refer directly to a table or figure in your own paper. For example: Figure 1 shows that the population was adversely affected. 3. Jargon Scientists use simple, straightforward writing and avoid the use of jargon. The general meaning of the word ‘jargon’ relates to the technical language of a particular group, such as biologists, chemists, or physicists. A narrower meaning implies intentionally excessive wordiness and the use of obscure terminology.
Jargon:
As part of a daily routine, the Microtidae specimens
were manually transported by the experimenter to the predetermined observation
cage. Each subject was examined carefully and any indications of fighting or
other aggressive behaviors were noted. The specimens were returned to the
holding facility upon completion of the data collection. Revised: The experimental mice were observed daily. All indicators of aggressive behavior were recorded. 4. Wordiness Since note taking concentrates on the recording of information, first drafts tend to be somewhat wordy. It is important to revise your work one sentence at a time, being careful to retain the content while simplifying your language. Changing even one word can produce dramatic results. Unlike your descriptive writing in other disciplines, writing in science does not benefit from the use of modifiers such as “very,” “quite,” and “rather.” You should omit any words or phrases that do not add to the meaning of your sentences.
Wordy
Concise More often than not Usually It is apparent that Apparently In light of the fact Because In only a small number of cases Occasionally, rarely In the possible event that If
(1, p. 144. Excerpted with permission.) E. Academic
Integrity Using someone else’s ideas without giving them credit is called plagiarism. Examples of common plagiarism by students include: 1. Claiming equal responsibility for a lab report completed by a lab partner; 2. Copying and pasting text into a paper without using quotation marks and proper citations; 3. Using paraphrased notes without acknowledging the source of the information; 4. Using poorly paraphrased notes – ones that do not completely change the grammatical structure of the original – even with a parenthetical citation. The most common type of plagiarism (4. above) is when you think you are paraphrasing or summarizing, but the wording is still so similar to the author’s that it does not represent your own synthesis of the material. You can avoid this type of inadvertent plagiarism by being more careful when taking notes. If your notes consist of half-copied passages from
the original source, perhaps it is because you have not fully understood the
passages. Note taking that consists of reading without thinking leads to
plagiarism. To take notes effectively, you need to understand the different types of notes. Direct Quote –
reprints, within quotation marks, an author’s words exactly
as they
appear in the original. These should be used sparingly, for emphasis
only. Summary - expresses the important facts and ideas in a large section of text, using only a few words. Paraphrase - expresses the important facts or ideas in a smaller section of text, using different words and grammatical structure but of about the same length as the original. The majority of your research should produce paraphrased notes. Both paraphrasing and summarizing require that you internalize and understand the material fully before you write about it. You must be able to identify and summarize the points that are most relevant to your particular needs. F. Writing
for Physics While the information above may serve as a guide for scientific writing in general, individual disciplines may have special requirements. For example, writing for Physics should follow these modifications to the general rules: 1. The Title Page of the paper should include the title of the paper, the date of the experiment, and a list of the Experimental Group. 2. A Physics research paper should include seven sections: Abstract, Introduction, Theory, Procedure, Results, Conclusion, and References. The background Literature Search is omitted completely. The Introduction includes the historical significance of the current work. The Theory section includes
the derivation of the mathematical formula utilized. The Procedure includes appropriate pictures and diagrams, and independent and dependent variables are rarely used. Results are expressed in a tabular form. In the Conclusion, the results of the experiment are not interpreted. Rather, the numbers (% error) speak for themselves. 3.
Pertinent ‘literature’ on an experiment is distributed as a handout.
References to other sources of information are listed in the Reference section
and cited in the text numerically as superscripts, using the Number System. 4. In Physics, there is no hypothesis stated. Purpose and results are presented and include the % error. The % error is sometimes made as a comparison to a known value, but when no known value is given, % error only relates to the precision of the instruments used to gather the data. 5. In addition to the preferred use of the passive voice, you should also avoid the use of personal pronouns. The information on this page
was developed in cooperation with A. Bednarik, R. Cain, K. Fredyna, D. Heiden,
B. Norvell, and K. Tracey of the FHS Science Department, and was based on: 1. McMillan VE. 2001.
Writing papers in the biological sciences. 3rd ed. Boston:
Bedford/St. Martin’s. 207 p.
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